'Steel Making Methods\r'

'Steel Making Methods | Advantages| Disadvantages| Basic group O Furnaces| * real towering business rates and low residual element * Does non burn fuel| * nifty efficiency requires immense amount of pig iron out to continue work. * Requires costly filtering transition due to senior juicy school levels of pollutants produced. * High refurbishing costs. * High dependence on fritter furnace/coking. | Electric bend Furnaces| * Minimal emissions/pollution. * Filtering of micro impactor chip not necessary. * Easy temperature control. * Precise alloying. * Economical to use scrap coat. * Contamination free. * Simultaneous deep deoxidising and desulfurization actions. * Excessive electric energy required. * Requires a steady supply of scrap metallic element * High transportation cost * Enclosures to reduce high sound levels * Dust collector for furnace off-gas * Slag production * Cooling water demand * Heavy truck traffic for scrap, materials handling, and product| The f irst step in the process, is to make the stigma itself. The virtually common regularity of stain making, constituting for over 60% of worldwide production uses a Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF). This process includes winning over 75% pig iron and decrease it to a low- light speed trade name in an abundance of oxygen.The consequence type utilises Electric Arc Furnaces (EAFs). This involves melting up to 100% recycled scrap and re clearing it using the heat produced from electrical arcs between highly charged electrodes. experience 2 (right & amp; below): EAF make for find 2 (right & below): EAF puzzle out count on 1 (left): BOF offset word form 1 (left): BOF Process From the table above it is benefit to see that without an established, effective transport system that allows for large amounts of scrap metal to be processed, the Basic Oxygen Method has fewer disadvantages.However, as TATA Steel already has an efficient system in place, the most executable method acting would be using Electric Arc Furnaces. Despite initial costs, using EAFs save on energy and raw materials, making it more(prenominal)(prenominal) environmental and cost friendly in the long swan. ‘Whilst a typical integrated (ie. BOF-route) marque mill straight off costs about $1100 per tonne of installed capacity, a medium-size EAF-route mini-mill straight off costs under $300 per tonne in terms of the initial capital outlay. ‘1 stamp Methods The next stage in the process is to build the steel and this is done by mannikining. modelling involves allowing molten metal to be poured into a mould to it can serene and solidify into a desired shape. The two most common methods of casting are Ingot Casting and regular Casting. The first of which is a traditional method that has largely been discontinued in mass production since the 1950s. It involves moulding the steel into bars (or block of metals) before universe reshaped and treated. unvarying casting however mi sses out the ingot stage and skips straight to having the metal in the form of slabs, billets or blooms for subsequent rolling in the close mills. identification number 4 (left): Continuous Casting Process Figure 4 (left): Continuous Casting Process Figure 3 (left): Ingot Casting Process Figure 3 (left): Ingot Casting Process Because Continuous Casting is basically an â€Å"evolved” version of Ingot Casting, on that point are now little or no advantages of Ingot Casting. Continuous Casting is more profitable because: * Reduced overall costs * Improved step of steel due to less variability in chemical composition both along the thickness and along the length and come near has fewer defects. * increase yield, since it is not necessary to crop the ends of continuously cast slabs. Reduced energy costs because the slabs are send directly to hot rolling and do not require pits for re heating system. Also, the thicknesses of continuously cast slabs are half(a) the thick ness of ingot castings and thus require raze energy for hot rolling. * Less pollution/emissions. * more amenability over the dimensions. Because of all this, the clearly tenacious method to use for mass production is Continuous Casting because for something as mass produced as self-propelling Gears, the initial investment spent on sugar up costs would be quickly do up.Case Hardening Methods Case solidification crucial for steel regions that are subjected to severe or continuous impacts, high temperatures and high pressures. It is a heat treatment process that produces the required attributes of a hard, exhaust and fatigue revolting surface layer whilst maintaining a tough, durable load that allows for high stress situations. These properties are achieved by reparation the chemical, metallurgical and sensible properties of the components exterior without affecting its more ductile interior.For gears, en eggshell indurate is required to prohibit pitting and deformation of the gears teeth under cyclic stresses. This method is preferred to through solidification, which is the uniform solidifying of the completed component, as hardened metal is comparatively less ductile and although strong, would not offer the alike degree of toughness desired at its core. on that point are several diametrical case hardening techniques use in the manufacturing industry. The distinguishable methods determine which physical properties, (such as surface cruelness, durability, ductility, case judgment and wear resistance) the component gets.This can be done by altering temperatures, heat source, metre period, and quench media. Carburising This is a diffusion- base process utilise on low-carbon or daft steels where a component is subjected to thermochemical phases. The component is packed in a carbon-rich environment at high temperatures, unremarkably between 870oC and 1010oC, for over a period of time until the carbon composition of the surface layer has chemically increased. At this stage the iron phase changes from ferrite to austenite, a state that is able to dissolve more carbon.The component is then satisfy in water or a oil based solution, which is a quick cooling process that produces a hard surface layer, where volume expansion on the surface is greater than the core thereby compressing the surface, locking the carbon atoms, transforming the iron phase to a martensitic state which in the end improves its overall tensile and yield strength. This method requires the entire component to be het and quenched, therefore protect the component with a protective layer to case harden specific sections is necessary.There are two types of carburizing methods employ in the manufacturing industries, namely atmosphere carburizing and vacuum carburising, the former(prenominal) being the more commonly used as it has the ability to produce high volume return and has cut down capital equipment costs, while vacuum carburising offers a more uniform case perspicaciousness which in turn reduces distortion as hygienic as the ability to r from to each one one higher temperatures therefore bring down processing times. Induction Heating This is a process of passing an alternating current through a coil around the component to generate a magnetic field, where eddy currents are induced.This along with the underground of steel components generates heat, austenitising the surface of the component. The depth to which case hardening occurs is determined by the frequency of the current, such that lower frequencies creates a deeper hardened material. This method allows for localised case hardening of the gear tooth with its core material tacit unaltered. The gear surface is then similarly quenched in water or an oil based solution, transforming it to a martensite.Single-shot hardening is where the entire component is heated in one procedure whilst progressive hardening involves the heating and quenching processes progress ively. Induction heating is a relatively fast process that offers accurate heating at precise sections, minimising distortion as well as causes minimal changes to the geometry of the gear, as well as faster cooling rates that creates harder surface layers. Figure 5 (left): Carburising Process Figure 5 (left): Carburising Process Figure 6 (right): Induction Heating Process Figure 6 (right): Induction Heating Process The Strength of Automotive GearsThe simplest method of calculating the strength necessary of any gear is to consider the maximal load on the tip of a mavin gear tooth. The Lewis Equation can be used to calculate a relatively accurate negligible UTS needed from the steel tooth with non-complex dimensions. In the automotive industry, varieties of different steels are made specifically for different components in different vehicles. The steel grades used on stately cars can generally withstand a stripped-down of 750MPa whereas motorsport and military vehicles are made w ith much more superior grades, some able to withstand up to 2050MPa.Hardenability Results Using SEP1664 The SEP1664 model can be used to find the hardness at a serial publication of depths, following case hardening, for 11 different steel types. The Rockwell hardness (HRC) at a set upn depth is found using the following equation: HRC=a0+a1mC+a2mSi+a3mMn+a4mP+a5mS+a6mCr+a7mMo+a8mNi+a9mAl+a10mCu+a11mN+a12mB+a13mTi+a14mV a0-14 are coefficients available in the SEP1664 tables and mX is the mass harmonize of analog X. A spreadsheet was created which used a VBA macro instruction to find steel compositions that met the hardenability criteria by trial and error.Several lot masses for each additive within the tramp specified by the SEP1664 tables were tasteed. Solutions were sorted in lay of increasing raw material cost. This macro was run for each of the 11 steel types. Three steel types were found to be too hard. Of the remaining eight, there was sufficient data to evaluate hardnes s at all the required depths for four. For the other four it was manageable to infer from the hardness trend that steel could be produced which was suitable for all depth levels.The cheapest result was for the steel type specified as being rough 1% chromium by mass (tables 1a and 1b from the SEP1664 model) at $161. 67 per tonne. For this alloy the hardness at 11mm depth was borderline acceptable. The additives making the greatness section to hardness were determined so they could be varied to give a greater margin for error. The importance of each additive at each depth could be found from the equation by multiplying the coefficient by the additive amount (i. e. evaluating the relevant anmX term) and calculating its percentage contribution to the entire hardness.The three most important additives for each depth level and the relative importance of the different additives at 11mm depth are shown in control panel 1 and postpone 2 respectively. Table 2: The Three Most Important running(a)s In toll Of Contribution To HRC For Each Depth Importance| 1. 5| 3| 5| 7| 9| 11| 13| 15| 20| 25| 30| #1| C| C| C| Cr| Cr| Cr| Cr| Cr| Cr| Cr| Cr| #2| Mn| Cr| Cr| C| C| C| C| C| C| C| C| #3| N| Mn| N| Mn| Mn| Mn| Mn| Mn| Mn| Mn| Mn| Table 3: Relative linear Contributions To HRC At 11mm Depth C| Si| Mn| P| S| Cr| Mo| Ni| Al| Cu| N| 40. 1%| 0. 7%| 13. 9%| 0. 0%| 0. %| 40. 6%| 0. 0%| 0. 1%| 4. 3%| 0. 2%| 0. 0%| Adjusting the appropriate additives gave a greater margin for error for a subtle increase in cost ($2. 32 per tonne, total cost $163. 99 per tonne). The composition of this steel is shown in Table 3. A plot of HRC against depth is shown in Figure 1 along with the hardenability criteria, it can be seen that the hardness, which tends to decrease with depth following case hardening, is truly unlikely to exceed the stipulated maximum hardness at the depths for which data is unavailable, no minimum hardness is stipulated for these depths.A Jominy test is recommended on a sample of this steel, once it has been manufactured, to arrest that the hardenability criteria are met. The amount of carbon, chromium and manganese mustiness be controlled to within 3% of the given values, clinched control is not necessary for other additives. Table 4: Chosen Steel Composition Additive| C| Si| Mn| P| S| Cr| Mo| Ni| Al| Cu| N| Amount| 0. 248%| 0. 02%| 0. 63%| 0. 004%| 0. 038%| 0. 947%| 0. 005%| 0. 010%| 0. 051%| 0. 017%| 0. 0148%| Figure 7: Hardenability Curve For Chosen Steel (Blue) And Cheapest Steel (Red), The Criteria atomic number 18 Shown In Black\r\n'